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THE VIVAHA (MARRIAGE CEREMONIES)

(xi) The Marriageable Age 

After the consideration of the Varna and the family, the- bride herself was examined. The first consideration was her age. In the Vedic times, as it is evident from the marriage hymns139 in the Rgveda and the Atharvaveda, the parties to marriage were grown up persons competent to woo and be wooed, qualified to give consent and make choice. The bridegroom was supposed to have a house where his wife could be mistress, even in case his parents, brothers and sisters, for some reasons, happend to live with him, thus giving her position of a supremacy in the household.140 This could not have been possible in the case of a child-wife. The Vedic rituals presuppose that the married pair were grown up enough to be lovers, man and wife, and parents of children.141 Almost at every step, formula are repeated showing their immediate fitness for procreation; and hand-grasping and consummation are the essential parts of the Vedic marriage. These all go to show that marriage took place when the girl had attained her puberty.

We have mans references in the Vedas to unmarried girl; who grew old in the house of their fathers.142 The maidens growing up in their fathers home mixed with the youth of the village.143 In Rgvedic times no girl was married before she bad reached the womanhood. She must be fully developed physically in her father's house (Pitrpadam Vyakta) before her marriage could be thought of.144 Surya, the daughter of Surya (the Sun) , was given away to Soma (the Moon) in marriage, only when she became youthful and yearned for a husband.145 Ghosa, the lady Rsi, married when she had nearly passed her youth. The virile Young man (marya) is normally a lover, constantly in the company of youthful maidens (Yuvati) embracing (Kanya) and flattering (Yosa).146 On the other hand the young maiden is also engaged in the midst of a number of suitors trying her best to please and attract them. Ladies were competent to arrange their own marriages. We get various charms and spells in the Rgveda and the Atharvaveda compelling the love of a man or a woman.147 A lover seeks to send the entire household to sleep when he visits his beloved.148 In the Atharvaveda149 a Kumariputra (Kanina, according to Mahidhara) is mentioned, which indicates that a girl could bear children before marriage. These evidences hardly leave any doubt about the fact that the bride and the bridegroom both were grown-up before marriage.

There are only a few references of doubtful character to the existence of child-marriage in the Vedic times. "One might adduce in the favour of the existence of child-marriage the Itihasa (story) related on the obscene verse, Rgveda, I 126.6.7. Here Bhavavya invited to the enjoyment of love, laughs at his spouse Romasa believing that she is still immature. On this Romasa invites him to convince himself of the contrary adding that she knew that the intercourse before puberty was forbidden by the law. But apart from the fact that these passages favour the general prevalence of marriage with mature girl the story conveys too much the impression of being a late invention occasioned by an etymological play on the name Romasa." Another possible reference to an early marriage is in the Chhandogya-Upanisad (I. 10. 1) where a poor Brahman teacher adopts the life of a beggar with his Atiki wife. The mediaeval commentators give Atiki a fanciful sense of Ajatapayodhara etc. which evidently reflects their own dislike of the idea that a Brahman teacher's youthful wife should go about freely. It should be noted that Atiki is -not a proper name, and it has to be taken as an adjective. Its only rational interpretation would be "fit for or used to wandering life" i.e. hardy and patient.

The Gryhyasutra marriage rituals also show that marriage was generally arranged after the girl had attained her puberty. The consummation of marriage could take place immediately after the nuptial ceremonies. According to the Paraskara-Grhyasutra150 the married couple "for three days should not eat saline food, should sleep on the ground and should not cohabit for a year, twelve nights, six nights or at least three nights." The last option speaks of the maturity of the bride. Baudhayana151 contemplates the possibility of the bride's being in her monthly course at the time of marriage. There was no second marriage system in the Grhyasutra period, which proves the existence of child-marriage. Thus the instructions regarding the period of continence after the removal to the husband's house has taken place as also regarding the necessity of consummating after the expiry of time can only refer to a grown-up girl. This was the general rule, but a tendency of lowering the marriageable age can be marked in the later Grhyasutras. Gobhila152 and the author of the Manava Grhyasutra153 declare a Nagnika to be the best. It shows that in their time late marriages, though still customary, had fallen into discredit.

During the periods of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata also, girls were grown up at the time of their marriage. In the first chapter of the Ramayana it is described that after the brides came to Ayodhya, they, having paid due respects to the elders, lived merrily with their husbands in seclusion, which presupposes post-puberty marriage.153a Sita, again, says to Anasuya, in the Ramayana, "My father, having seen me of marriageable age, became very anxious and pulled down like a man who has Lost his wealth After a long time, the illustrious Raghava came here with Visvamitra to see Yajna (here Dhanusa Yajna)."153b The above statement shows a girl could wait for it long time after her puberty for suitable match. In the Vanakanda, however, it is put in the mouth of Sita that, when Ravana went to kidnap her, she was eighteen and her husband twenty-five and that they had spent twelve years at Ayodhya. Thus, the age of Sita is brought down to about six years at the time of her marriage. But it should be noted that the epic was recast many times anti the verses in question are later interpolations, quite inconsistent with overwhelming evidences to post puberty marriages. Bhavabhuti, in his Uttara-Ramacharita,154 simply reflects the ideas of his age when he bases the description of Sita as a child-bride on the above text of the Ramayana.

The Mahabharata, equally with the Ramayana, offers evidences in favour of the marriages of grown-up girls. On hearing the Gandharva marriage of Sakuntala, Kanva expresses his sentiments, "0 pure-smiling one, many menses of yours went in vain. Now, you have become fruitful. You have committed no sin.154a In the Uma-Mahesvara dialogue, a girl who has attained her puberty is called fit for marriage. "A girl, who bathes after her menses, is called pure. The father, the brother, the mother, the maternal uncle and the paternal uncle should give her away in marriage."155 Even in the later classical Sanskrit epics the same tradition is maintained. In the Sanskrit dramas the main theme is a love intrigue or a love-marriage, which could only have been possible in the case of grown-up matches. 

In subsequent times, the marriageable age of the bride went down lower and lower. There were many causes that conspired to bring about this state of affairs. After the complete subjugation of India the life of the Aryans because ease-loving and luxurious. They became supreme in the country and began to enjoy life in its full profligacy. This led to an early sexual life. The stoppage of Vedic study and the Upanayana of girls also removed the restrictions of a disciplined and chaste life under teachers. But there were other causes also that helped this process. From the third or the fourth century B. C. the foreign invasions of India began. The Greeks, the Bactrian, the Parthians and the Scythians, who were physically stronger hut less civilized than the Indians, occupied the North-West provinces of India. The position of woman was very low among these peoples and she was regarded as an article of enjoyment. The social life of the Hindus was endangered and influenced by these onslaughts. Perhaps, for safety and fashion both, they began an early married life.

The Dharmasutras that were reduced to writing about 500 B. C. onwards clearly evince the tendency of lowering the marriageable age of the bride. They generally expect that a girl should be married before she attains her womanhood. But they permit her to wait for sometimes if her marriage was not arranged by her guardians at the proper time. Vasistha156 and Baudhayana157 allow three years and Gautama158 and Visnu159 three months. Though it was desired that marriage should take place before attaining womanhood, the Dharmasutras are silent about the sin resulting from the late marriage, and they do not inflict stigma and threats on the guardians of a grown-up girl, which is so common with the later authorities. It seems that marriages were generally arranged before sixteen.

Different stages in the evolution of the custom of child marriage can be traced in the Smrti literature. In the one and the same law-book we find passages which see no offence in marriage between adult, and others which recommend child marriage. It can be accounted for only when we suppose a gradual transition from the Vedic custom of late marriage to an increasing extent of child-marriage.

In the much-discussed passage in Manu160 the more importance is attached to the question that a father must give his daughter at all events to a suitor of an equal caste and superior qualities than to the problem whether a girl at marriage should be mature or not:

"Let the father give the girl, even if she be not yet marriageable, to a suitor who is high-born, handsome and belonging to an equal caste." According to the regulation "Let a girl, when she has reached maturity, remain till death in the house of her father, rather than that one should ever give her to a husband lacking the high qualifications."161 We, again find in the Manu-Smrti:162 "Let a girl wait for an appropriate suitor for three years after the commencement of first menses, from then onwards let her seek a husband for herself from an equal caste." But although in these verses emphasis is laid on the choice of a suitor from an equal caste, yet also on the one hand marriage before puberty is represented in "Apraptamapi" as the exception and on the other hand ; words "Trini" etc. "three" expressly admit that if an appropriate suitor be not found, marriage may be postponed until after the commencement of menses and may even take place a long time thereafter. And when Manu10 shortly afterwords lays down that a man of thirty years shall marry a girl of twelve, and a man of twenty-four a girl of eight years, and quickly too, if law is in danger, perhaps, this verse can be regarded as advocating hastened marriage even with a girl who is under age.

But when we come down from the time of the Manu-Smrti to the later periods, we find regulations which unconditionally enjoin child-marriages. In the Baudhayana164 it is stated that "To a virtuous, pure husband the girl should be given while she is still immature; even from an unworthy man she should not be withheld if she has attained womanhood." The strict rules regarding marriage before the commencement of puberty gained additional force from the fact that disregard of it was represented as accompanied by evil consequences to the gardians of the girl. While Manu165 is content to characterize the father as blameworthy who does not give his daughter in marriage at the proper time, it is stated in Vasistha:166 ''For fear of commencement of puberty let the father give his daughter in marriage while she is still going about naked. For if she remains at home after the marriageable age sin falls upon the father."

In still later period the dread of postpuberty marriage became so terrible that the Smrtis brought down the marriageable age still lower. They divide the marriageable girls into five classes: (1) Nagnika or naked, (2) Gauni, eight years old, (3) Rohini, 9 years old, (4) Kanya, 10 years old and (5) Rajasvala, above ten years.166a Nagnika was regarded as the best for marriage Some authorities give ludicrous prescription. For example, a later interpolation in the Mahabharata says. "The father should give his daughter at her birth to a suitable husband. Having given her away at the proper time, he attains merits."167 In the opinion of the Brahmapurana168 also a girl should be given in marriage while she is quite a child: "The father should give his daughter to a handsome husband while she is a child; there he attains his goal; if not, sin falls on him. By all means he should marry his daughter between four and ten. While she does not know womanly bashfulness and plays with dust, she should be given in marriage, if not, the father falls to an evil state."

The hold of child-marriage became so strong that the commentators, who flourished in the mediaeval and the Muslim periods of Indian history, tried to explain away ancient passages in favour of adult marriages. For instance, they say that the verses like "one should remain unmarried if a suitable husband is not available etc." do not increase the age but they emphasize tile suitability of the match.

When did this change occur cannot be precisely ascertained, Most probably it took place about the beginning of the Christian era, First, it did not appeal to all the sections of the Hindu society. In the Manu-Smrti the Gandharva and the Raksasa forms of marriages are recognized. In the Sanskrit dramas and epics grown-up matches are mentioned. But, as already pointed out, the Hindus were influenced by the foreigners, who conquered the North-western parts of India. During the Gupta period, however, there was a national awakening and the security of life, so adult marriages were revived and they continued up to tile advent of the muslims. The conquest of India by the Mohammadans, again, made the life of the Hindus insecure, and the influence of the Muslim culture itself was towards tile lowering of the marriageable age of a girl.

But besides the danger and influence of the foreign conquest of India, there was religious belief also which changed the idealogy of the Hindus about marriage. Marriage, in course of time, came to be regarded as a gift by the father to her husband. A gift is given once and should not be replaced; moreover, a thing already enjoyed should not be given in gift; its disregard is sinful. Unfortunately the mythical gods, Soma, Gandharva and Agni who were believed to help the physical development of a gir1,168a came to be held as the enjoyers of her person. So the religious father of a girl became anxious to give her away in marriage before she was enjoyed by these gods. A Nagnika was preferred for this very reason.

At first the age of the bridegroom was not lowered with that of the bride, as its danger and religious need was not felt. But when like girls they also did away with the Asrama system, their marriageable age fell down. In course of time, in order to make suitable matches, the age of the boy was brought down with that of the girl.

Although these sacred regulations received ever wider acceptance and finally became essential for an orthodox marriage, marriages at an advanced age must have been common for centuries till about the middle ages. Local differences also must have been there, as they are at present. Otherwise it will be difficult to explain the disregard of this custom iii the Sanskrit dramas, epics and the mediaeval Rajput customs of grown-up marriages. The early medical authors among the Hindus, have also rightly recognized that a girl does not reach the full development of her physical capacities, even in India, until she is sixteen. Susruta169 says: "A man in his twenty-fifth but a girl in her sixteen have reached the summit of their vigour, an experienced doctor ought to know that." In another passage he confirms this view with these details: "When a man who has not reached his twenty-fifth has intercourse with a girl who is below sixteen, the embryo dies in the womb, or if it is born it cannot live long, or lives with little vigour; therefore, one must not permit any to have intercourse with a woman who is too young.

It is a happy sign that all the progressive opinions in India to-day are advocating the cause of grown-up marriages, and the mediaeval orthodoxy is passing away with the circumstances under which the custom of child-marriage arose. The Government of India have also thought it wise to enact a law, namely "The Child-marriage Restraint Act," otherwise known as "The Sarda Act" to stop this undersirable custom.

(xii) Qualifications of the Bride

After the consideration of the age of the bride, her personal qualifications were taken into account. We have no particular reference to this question in the pre-sutra literature. In the Satapatha Brahmana, however, we get a description in which an altar is being compared to a woman from which we can form an idea about the Standard of a beautiful woman. "They praise that woman whose hips are wide, breasts are developed and loin is thin."170 Again we find, "That beautiful young woman, sweet and emotional." When we come to the Grhyasutras, greater details are supplied to us. The Asvalayana Grhyasutras is content with "a woman with good external signs."171 According to the Bharadvaja Grhyasutra,172 there are four considerations in a marriage-wealth, beauty, intellect and family. The more secularly-minded authorities, says the author of the above Grhyasutra, went very far and put the beauty of the bride above all "A man should marry a girl in whom his mind finds pleasure and towards whom his eves are attracted. A girl of this type is called of good qualities. What will he do with intellect?173 But this was not the most accepted canon. The more religiously-minded writers preferred intellect to other considerations. "How could one put up with a woman without intellect?"174

External qualifications of a bride are more detailed in the Smrtis. Manu175 says, "Let him wed a woman, who is free from bodily defects; who has an agreeable name, the graceful gait of a swan or an elephant, a moderate quantity of hair on the body and on the head, small teeth and soft limbs." Yajnavalkya176 speaks in a general way that the bride should be Kanta or lovely. Satatapa supplies further details, "Having married a girl whose voice is like that of a swan. whose colour is like that of a cloud and whose eyes ate sweet and reddish, a householder finds happiness."177

The following girls were avoided on physical grounds: "Let him not marry a maiden (with) reddish (hair) nor one who has a redundant member, not- one who is sickly, nor one either with no hair (on the body) or too much, nor one who is garrulous or has red eyes."178 The Visnu-purana, quoted in the Viramitrodaya, enumerates some other bodily defects of a bride: "One should not marry a woman who has beard or moustaches on her face, nor one whose appearance is like that of a man, nor one whose voice is hoarse, who speaks always satirically. A wise man should not wed a girl whose eyelids do not fall, nor one whose eyesight is lost, whose thighs are covered with hairs, whose ankles are projected or prominent, whose cheeks are sunken, who has lost her lustre, who is suffering from jaundice, whose eyes are red, and whose hands and feet are very thin. One should not marry a girl who is a draft or very tall who has no eye-brows. whose teeth are very rare and whose mouth is terrible."179

Awkward and inauspicious names were also a disqualification in a girl. Manu180 declares, "One should not marry a girl who is named after a constellation, a tree, a river, a low-caste man, a mountrain, a bird, a snake, a slave, nor one whose name inspires terror." The idea underlying this prohibition seems to be this, that these names is originally current among the uncultured, rude aboriginal forest-dwellers whose mode of living and contract, both, were avoided by the civilized Aryans. Afterwards these very names were refined and given to girls of respectable families. Ultimately the prohibition was removed. Apastamba181 forbids to marry a girl whose name ends in "r" or "1," most probably on the ground of phonetic difficulties. Yama182 taboos even a girl who is named after a Veda or a Gandharva. Perhaps a Veda was thought too sacred for a secular purpose, and a Gandharva was a representative of lust, which should not be always present with a woman in the form of her name.

Some other qualifications were also considered while selecting a bride. According to the Varaha Grhyasutra "One should marry a girl who has brothers, is virgin and is excellent even when stripped of her clothes (Nagnika) ."183 A brotherless girl was not desired on religious basis, as her eldest son should be adopted by her father and therefore the Fathers of her husband would starve for want of ancestral worship. This prohibitions later on, was not strictly observed, because religious considerations gave way to economic gain. At present people do not attach any importance to this questio9. Virginity was required to secure a chaste and unwidowed woman. This rule was more and more strictly followed later on, as the remarriage of a widow was altogether tabooed among the upper caste Hindus. The last qualification of Nagnika has got different and interesting interpretations. The later Smrtikaras and commentators interpret Nagnika, as already pointed out, as "a girl who has not attained her womanhood.184 The commentator on the ManavaGrhyasutra,185 however, while repeating the same interpretation, says "Or (one should marry) a Nagnika who is the best." He further elucidates his remark: "One should marry a woman who proves to be the best even when she is stripped of her clothes, because even ugly women with ornaments and clothes appear charming; therefore, being naked, not all look beautiful."

In this connection it would be interesting to note the view of Sir Thomas More recorded in his Utopia that before marriage a staid and honest matron "Showed the woman, be she maid or widow, naked to the wooer….. At this custom we laughed and disallowed it as foolish. But they on their part, do greatly wonder at the folly of all other nations which, in buying a colt . . . be so chary and circumspect that though he be almost all bare, yet they will not buy him unless the saddle and all the harness be taken off, lest under these coverings he hid some gall or sore. And yet in choosing a wife, they be so reckless that all the residue of the woman's body being covered with clothes, they estimate her scarcely by one hand's breadth (for they can see no more than her face) and so join her to them."186

This custom of showing the bride naked to the wooer would not have been very common even when and where there was no seclusion of women. With the introduction of the Purdah system in the Hindus, when women became invisible to outsiders, the very demand of showing a girl became absurd, and more absurd became her naked examination.

Further, the bride should he younger (than the bridegroom). Yajiyasi and "Ananyapurvika" (not previously having come into physical contact with a man).187 A younger girl was matched with a grown-up man, because her physical capacities develop earlier than those of a man. There were two kinds of "Anyapurvikas" Punarbhu and Svairini. Yajnavalkya188 explains the former as one married for the second time whether she has come into physical contact of a man or not." The latter according to the same author is "one who, out of lust, having left her own husband, approaches another man." The very prohibition shows that at one time marriage with these women was permissible under law, though not liked by people, But later on when the standard of female chastity became very high and the widow-remarriage was tabooed, such marriages became out of question.

The last, but not the least, qualification of a bride was, that she should be a "Stri" "a woman" or a potential mother. Vijnanesvara189 on Yajnavalkya explains the word "Stri" as "one examined in her womanhood in order to remove the doubt of barrenness." The main purpose of marriage , according to the Hindus, was the procreation of children, and a woman was compared to a field where seed could be sown. So, there was no sense in marrying a woman, who could not produce children. This consideration was based on the racial instinct of the people. In course of time, however, the idea that marriage was meant for uniting a man and a woman for social purposes rather than for exclusively racial one, gained ground, though it was not absent in early times too. Therefore, the importance of womanhood was not particularly realized. The system of child-marriage also discouraged the examination of a girl.

The internal qualifications of a bride were believed to be difficult to comprehend, so people resorted to queer superstitious means to know them. The Asva1ayana Grhyasutra190 says, (Internal) signs (of a girl) are very difficult to know. Therefore having brought eight clods of earth from different places, 0110 should address them with tile verse. "Rta, the moral order was born first in the very beginning. The Truth is established in the moral order. Let that come to her to which the girl is born. Let that be seen what is true." After tile clods were addressed thus, the girl was asked to touch a particular clod she liked. Different clods told different fortunes, according to which the poor girl was either accepted or rejected. Gobhila191 and Saunaka192 repeat the same test. But it seems that tile test in question was not very popular as it is mentioned by no other ancient authorities. The Dharmasutras, and the Smrtis do not refer to it. The modern Paddhatis do not contain it. Perhaps it was omitted very early as a silly procedure.

Such were the ideal qualifications of a bride. But, if strictly expected, they would have excluded fifty percent of girls from matrimony. The practice, however, must have been milder than the rules. In course of time, family and monetary considerations became so important that they overhadowed all others except the virginity of the girl. When child-marriage became very common, tile bridegroom, who must have been very inquisitive about his mate, lost his voice in tile matter and automatically the examination of the bride came to be neglected. Only in the Deccan and the South, ancient Hindu traditions are alive to some extent and a cursory formal test of the bride takes place.

(viii) Qualifications of the Bride-groom

The qualifications of a bride-groom were equally high. Yajnavalkya says that a bride-groom should possess all the good qualities of a bride. So there was no concession or partiality towards the former. The first requirement of a bride-groom was the completion of his Brahmacharya. Manu declares: "A student who has studied, in due order, the three Vedas, or even only one, without breaking the rules of studentship, shall enter order of a householder." He again adds, "Having bathed with the permission of his teacher, and performed the Sarnavartana according to the rules, a twice-horn should marry a wife." Brahmacharya was a primary Condition accepted by almost all the Smrtis.

The next important qualification of a bridegroom was his age. According to the Linga-Purana quoted in the Viramitrodaya, "Before anything else, the age should be considered and then other signs. What is the use of the signs of a man who has passed his marriageable age?196

In the opinion of the Varaha-Grhyasutra197 "a bridegroom should have subdued his anger and be cheerful in his spirits". Other considerations were wealth, beauty, learning, intellect and family status. The latter were more important than the former. Gautama198 says that the bride should be given to "a man who possesses learning, character, friends, and modesty." Apastamba199 gives similar qualifications. Yama lays clown the most comprehensive qualifications of a bridegroom: "Having considered the family, character, physique, age, learning, wealth and resourcefulness-these seven qualifications of a bridgroom-a wise man should give his daughter to him; there is nothing else to be considered."200

Just as "Stritva" or womanhood was essential in a bride, so Pumstva or potency was an indispensable quality in a bridegroom. "Women are created for offsprings; a woman is the field and a man is the possessor of the seed; the field should be given to him who possesses the seed; a man without the seed does not deserve a girl."201 "If a man is really found potent after his examination in potency by the signs of his own limbs, he deserves a girl."202 Narada203 mentions fourteen kinds of impotent men who were to be avoided.

Ananyapurvakatva or virginity so necessary in the case of a bride was not essential in a bridegroom, though observance of Brahmacharya was required from him. A Hindu could marry a second time if his first wife was dead, or if she was physically incompetent or morally depraved.204 In the case of a man his second marriage was imperative on religious grounds. "A man having burnt his dead wife with Agnihotra should marry another woman without delaying the worship of his domestic Fire any further."205 But giving one's daughter to a bachelor was regarded more meritorious than to a man who married for a second time. "The gift of a girl in the hands of a man, who has not burnt his wife brings infinite merits; in the hands of a man who marries for a second time it brings only half, but the gift is quite fruitless if it is made to a man who has married several times."206

The disqualifications of a bridegroom were several. The following bridegrooms were to be avoided: "One who is retired from life, one who is hated by his people or left by his friends and relatives, one who belongs to another caste, one who suffers from consumption, one who is a "Lingastha" (living in disguise) or an Udari (having a large belly), lunatic or fallen, who is leper, impotent, or a man of the same Gotra, one who has lost sight and ears or suffers from epilepsy-these all should be disapproved for marriage. If these defects exist before marriage (somehow unknown) or arise after it, in both the cases, the gift of a girl should be regarded invalid."207 "One should take back his daughter if she is given to a man who has no respectable family and character, who is impotent and excommunicated from his caste, infected with epilepsy, belonging to a different religion, sickly and living in disguise."208 The same authority enumerates other disqualifications as follows: "A girl should not be given to six kinds of men-one who is very near or very far away, who is either very strong or very weak, who has no means of livelihood and one who is an idiot."209 Old age and ugliness were also regarded as defects in a bridegroom: "If a man, out of greed for money, gives his daughter to a man who is old, wicked or ugly he is born in his next life as a "Preta." (an evil spirit)."210

In early times when girls were married in advanced age and freedom of choice was allowed to them, these qualifications of a bridegroom were more real and valued than in subsequent times when early marriage became the rule and post-puberty marriage came to be stigmatized. The strict Sastric injunction was enforced that "a Nagnika girl should be given to a meritorious and celebrate man, or even to one without merits, but one should not delay the marriage of a marriageable girl."211The parents, no doubt, still cherish the pious desire of selecting the most suitable husband, but they do not pay full attention to purely religious considerations and the rules of racial eugenics. The greatest determining factors in marriage, at present, are wealth and social status of the bridegroom. Under the present Hindu Law, marriage with those persons who are regarded invalids in early Smrtis, is recognized as legal.